High Quality Content by WIKIPEDIA articles! Edward Charles Howard FRS, the youngest son of Charles Howard, 11th Duke of Norfolk, was a British chemist who has been described as "the first chemical engineer of any eminence. In 1800, Howard was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London for his work on mercury. He discovered mercury fulminate, a powerful primary explosive. In 1813 he invented a method of refining sugar which involved boiling the cane juice not in an open kettle, but in a closed vessel heated by steam and held under partial vacuum. At reduced pressure, water boils at a lower temperature, and so Howard's development both saved fuel and reduced the amount of sugar lost through caramelization. The invention, known as Howard's vacuum pan, is still in use

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